Madof’s Scandal Essay Example for Free

Madof’s Scandal Essay In the first two weeks of December 2008, the stressed that 70-year old businessman, Bernard Madoff is suffering becomes apparent to his employees, most particularly to his two sons. It concerns a $7 billion redemption request that Madoff had been ‘struggling to obtain the liquidity necessary to meet his obligation’. This made them approach him directly what the problem is all about. The answer is unexpected. Prior to this incident, Madoff is well known throughout the world of economics and investment as a genius and a trustworthy owner of Madoff Investment Securities LLC. The firm is generally a broker-dealer and investment advisor concerned with the management of investors’ assets, giving advice to investment management and is associated with some nonprofit organizations (Helyar et al. , 2009). At the age of 22, Bernard Lawrence Madoff managed to build his firm from his $5,000 savings. Since its first few years in the business, Madoff’s Securities reputation was tantamount to success. Madoff also served as chairman of the board of directors of the NASDQ Stock Market (Byrne et al. , 2005). Madoff confessed, according to Theodore Cacioppi (BackgroundNow. com 2008), that ‘There is no innocent explanation’ pertaining to the fraud that he committed. Cacioppi’s testimony also revealed that Madoff stated to his ‘senior employees’ that he is already ‘finished’ and the firm is actually ‘one giant Ponzi scheme’. The Hennessee Group, represented by Charles Gradante, had also been suspicious of the Madoff’s success when their reports showed that Madoff’s only had 5 months down in a span of 13 years despite several market fluctuations and economic changes. Helyar and colleagues (2009) reported that Madoff’s strategy of split-strike conversion turns out to be front-running. This strategy involves â€Å"brokers’ for their own account†. This is known to be illegal yet Mardoff’s investors didn’t care. Helyar and colleagues believes that investors are concerned about the money they get. In my opinion, Madoff’s scandal opens the public’s eyes to the fact that cheating is indeed prevalent in the American Society. Even successful people cheat and are cheated. The effect cripples the economy and results to distrust. New policies are being and will be initiated to avoid and detect possible frauds. When I heard about the scandal, the first thing that came to my mind was the quote ‘when everything is going your way, you’re probably in the wrong lane’. Taken literally this indicates driving at the other side of the road. Nonetheless, another interpretation reveals that ‘everything coming your way’ resembles things are being ‘too good to be true’ or turning out as you expected. In the case of Madoff’s investors, they looked at the facts; they listen to what former investors say and followed that path expecting the same returns. Despite the fact that Madoff’s offer and profiles seem ‘too good to be true’. They grabbed the chance and hope for the best. At the end, it is the ‘wrong lane’ after all. Madoff fraud strategy is well-known as ‘Ponzi scheme’. This type of fraud had been in the business industry for several decades yet people still fell for it. The good promises are simply too great to refuse. These same things eluded logical thinking and provoke greed. The scandal affects the investors and their reputation. It also raised doubts regarding implementation of laws and economic policies. It posed new challenges for proper investment management and questions the liability of security firms. Moreover, it is not simply an issue of crime or fraud; rather it undermines societal values and trends. References BackgroundNow. com. (2008). Bernard L. Madoff Charged In Multi-Billion Dollar Ponzi Scheme. Retrieved on February 17, 2009 from http://books. google. com/books? id=m2_yfK582ukC Helyar, J. , Burton, K. , and Silver, V. (2009). Roots of a $50 billion Ponzi Scheme. Retrieved on February 17, 2009, from http://www. businessmirror. com. ph/index. php? option=com_contentview=articleid=5577:roots-of-a-50-billion-ponzi-scheme-catid=46:bloomberg-specialsItemid=70 McShane, L. (2008). Bernard Bernie Madoff: From Queens lifeguard to soaking fraud. Retrieved on February 17, 2009, from http://www. nydailynews. com/news/ny_crime/2008/12/13/2008-12-13_bernard_bernie_madoff_from_queens_lifegu. html Schwartz, R. A. , Byrne, J. A. , and Colaninno, A. (2005). Coping with Institutional Order Flow. Springer. US Security and Exchange Commission. (2001). â€Å"Ponzi† Schemes. Retrieved on February 17, 2009, from http://www. sec. gov/answers/ponzi. htm

Can a Historian Look at the Past Objectively?

Can a Historian Look at the Past Objectively? In the following lines, it is going to be discussed the statement It is impossible for an historian not to view the recent past through a moral or ideological lens. In order to offer a deeper insight in the topic, it has been considered appropriate to reformulate the statement, turning it into a question and formulating it in a positive way. As well, though we will go back to it later, it has been considered as well to remove the nuance recent from the question. Thus, this is the result: It is possible for a historian not to view the past through a moral and ideological lens?. These modifications, that as we may see dont distort the essence of the original proposal, will make easier to think about the topic, as facilitates the task of consider it from a historical and epistemological-based perspective, which enables us to give a broader picture about it and its historical roots. Anyway, in the conclusion, the original statement will be brought back again, and answered. The first step before going deep in this issue, is to define briefly what do we understand for moral and ideological lens. To question if history is written through a moral lens, applied to the case of historical studies, can be understood as questioning whereas all studies in the field are morally biased or not; what is to say, if beneath any text is it possible to find some clues about the moral position of the author. To explain what it is understood by ideological lens, it has been judged appropriated the definition given by professor Michael Hunt: an interrelated set of convictions or assumptions that reduce the complexity of a particular slice of reality to easily comprehensive terms and suggests appropriate ways of dealing with that reality[1]. Maybe this definition can seem too broad, but it has been chosen precisely because of that: it allows to include in thiscategory not only the structures of thought that are usually considered as ideologies, such as Marxism or Liberalism, but as well different intellectual trends or other theories of knowledge. In other words, ideology is understood as an accepted body of ideas that helps to conduct a research and explain processes, in the field of social sciences. Hence, an approach through an ideological lens consists on the analysis and reconstruction of historical events through the referential points given by this structure. So, the discussion about if it is possible for a historian whether to see or not the recent past through a moral or ideological lens is about his capacity of keeping his own position and concerns outside the view of the past that is offering through his writings. In the end, the issue under discussion here can be identified with the recurring argument in historiography about objectivity and subjectivity in historical research. Therefore, along the essay we will make a lot of references to it. Once the concepts have been focused, everything is ready to continue diving in our issue. As it has been seen, the matter that occupies us can be identified with the historiographical discussion of whether objectivity is possible or not. In the following lines, we will bring up the main positions stood among scholars around this question, and the shifts that those views have experienced along the last century. This will help to give some steps towards a solution to it. Traditionally, related to the issue of objectivity and subjectivity, from the theoretical positions among the scholars in the field, we could distinguish two currents. On one hand, those who defend that objectivity can be achievable, and that is mandatory; on the other, those who think that is not only an unrealistic aim, but an undesirable one. Of course, as always in social sciences, this distinction must not be intended to be pure and rigid. On the first group, we could find the pioneer of the discipline Leopold Von Ranke, and his line has been followed by other historians such as Trevelyan or David Thomson[2]. Quoting Ranke, the main position of this group can be summarized in the idea that history is about simply to show how it really was[3]; to learn it in its own terms. They justify this main statement in the idea that there is a need to give primacy to the facts, that them should be the main point of departure of any historical research. Hence, history should be about establishing facts in a first stance, and identifying connections, but with a total detachment from the object of study, without contaminating historical reality with personal prejudices[4]. Of course, we can find some variants among this group, as some objectivists will concede some space to speculation or personal interpretation. This is the case of Trevelyan indeed, or of a XIX century intellectual who stated that facts are sacred, opinion is free[5]. But they all share the main standpoint that primacy have to be given to the facts, and that interpretation and historical reconstruction must be perfectly distinguished. On the other hand, we could find a school of historians which can be englobed in a more subjectivist trend. In this group, we can find historians such as Benedetto Croce, in the early XX century, or Carr himself, in the sixties. One of the most enlightening summaries of this view Croces statement all history is contemporary history[6]; they understood that the task of the historian was to see the past through the eyes of the present, and to evaluate it (from it)[7]. Therefore, they argued that all his ideas, theories and assumptions, his ideological and moral background, were reflected upon the text. In this way, Carr would argue that, despite facts are the backbone of historical studies, are not its reason[8]. It can be said that what he was trying to say is that facts are necessary condition, but not sufficient. But this group distinction is not useful anymore, since the outbreak in the late XX Century of a new school of thought that shivered, and still doing, the foundations of historical theory: postmodernism. Despite all the differences of perspective that confronted both trends, they were discussing inside a shared paradigm: modernity. Maybe they didnt agree in the relationship of the historian with his work, in the idea of detachment, or on the primacy of the facts doctrine, but all of them agreed on the idea that the achievable aim of the discipline was related to historical truth. It can be counterargued that they stood a different conception of the concept of historical truth, but undoubtedly shared the standpoint that his works where referring to an external truth. The outbreak of postmodernism from the late sixties onwards broke with this shared paradigm. From the field of philology and philosophy, the idea that there is not linkage between reality and the works that try to explain it, spread to the other branches of knowledge. Postmodernists, such as the French philosopher Jacques Derrida, regarded that objectivity in historical studies must be understood as an unachievable myth, a mere product of what might be called the referential illusion[9]. Following the path charted by the early postmodernists on the sixties, some historians such as Theodore Zeldin[10] accepted these basis, assuming a relativism through the acceptance of the premises that historical texts are not bound to any historical truth, so are to be seen as mere subjective personal views.[11] These assumptions were elevated to the category of rights, understanding that every historical explanation should be regarded as a personal tale, concluding therefore, as Zeldin states, everyone has the right to find his own perspective[12]. As we can see, if we want to preserve the binary distinction of two confronted groups, to gain a faithful picture of the current discussion, we have to reformulate it. Then, in one side we find the post-modernist view, which claims not only that any view in history is biased by moral and ideological concerns, but that everything is ideology and morals, those of the author, who stands behind the tale. On the other, those who believe that reference to historical truth is achievable. Inside this group, we may find some differences about the specific definition of truth or the role of ideology and so on, but this main point unifies them. Nowadays, it is commonly accepted that some ideological and moral bias is unavoidable[13], but among this group it is denied that this doesnt allow to reach certain objective conclusions. So, if we want to stay in the frame of the current polemics in the field, the question about whether it is impossible not to view the past through a moral or ideological lens requires to inquiry in which way historians pre-assumptions are reflected on his work, to which extent does it distort the vision about the past, and whether this enables us to talk about an achievable objective historical truth or not. Until now, we have been focusing the question: first, by clarifying the concepts; later, by having a brief look to the status of the issue among scholars. The latter point lead us to the stance that is widely accepted that moral and ideology are present in any historical work. There is no one easy answer to what are the implications of it, and we have thought that the best way of understanding it is by revising some of the main elements that take part in historical research. Through a brief study of how history is made, we will be able to understand how the moral and ideological assumptions of the author, his subjectivity, are present on his works. But before that, as are very related to the question of How?, it would be interesting to have a brief look to the question of What is the historian looking for? and the reasons of why is it judged of interest. Of course, the questions of What? and Why history? would deserve a whole essay. But our aim is not to tackle with the topic of the nature of history. Therefore, we will devote just a few lines to these matters. 4.1) What? The question of what history is was first critically formulated by Ranke, who developed the idea that historys aim was to study it in its own terms, how it really was[14]. The idea was that the historian had to go to the archives, and collect facts which would explain how was the past. So, we can say, he understood that history was a reality that resided in the sources, and that was within reach for the historian, who could carry on a reconstruction of it. This conception of history explains why some historians from the positivist school, in the late XIX Century, thought that they were near the moment where, been all the archives revised, definite historical truth was going to be reached[15]. The problem is that it seems to be an out-of-focus vision. The past is not out there anymore, it is dead. This have been emphasized by some historians along the XX Century, such as Marwick who remarks the idea that past doesnt exist anymore, and that all we have from it are relics and traces through which the historian has to work in order to offer a more or less plausible synthesis of the past[16]. And this can be complemented with Carrs emphasis on the fact that historical research is made from the present, from a different context and perspective than its object of study[17]. Though sometimes is near falling in a relativist view often criticised by other scholars, asElton did[18], he has helped to develop among the discipline a valuable concern about how our study of the past is conducted by interests and ways of doing moulded by the present time. So, this leads us to a new idea of history as a discipline: instead of the reconstruction of the past, it is a representation where the role of the historian should be taken into account. The past is dead, and it is not going to be brought into live again. What we only have are traces, rests, ruins of it, and the task of the historian is to create explanatory models from them, trying to be faithful to the historical reality they refer to. In a metaphorical way, we can say that history is like the representation of a landscape painted by a painter backwards it, guided by the indications of a man in who he relies. He doesnt see the landscape, but he can create a more or less faithful image of it; depending on how skilful he is, on his capability of asking the accurate questions to his friend, on his ability of deduction and his experience and so on, he would create a better or worse representation of it. But the representation would not be an exact reproduction of the landscape. First, because it would not be the intention: it is a 2-D representation of a 3-D reality. But as well because a lot of data would be missed, even being his friend a good guide, and the painter would have to deduce some of the connections made on the canvas, implying all his capacities of reasoning, deducing, comparing, thinkingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ always at service of the, for him fragmented, reality that is trying to portray. Following this example, a postmodernist could argue that is pointless to think that there could be a real bond between our blind painters representation and the landscape. So, he shouldnt try it; what he would have to do is to be conscious that his representation is a totally disengaged vision of the landscape, so what he would only be able to do is to create freely his own personal interpretation. But then he wouldnt be accomplishing the task he has been initially asked: to reach a proper representation of the landscape. He would create a beautiful and colourful composition, but a meaningless one. Coming back from the metaphor,the historian who is unaware of the object of study, history, cannot be conceived as a writer of history, but of poetry or literature. Hence, post-modernism is not applicable to history, as both are incompatible: the historian who fully accepts that premises cannot be called a historian, as he is rejecting the main foundation of the discipline: to offer a proper representation of history. So, what we can conclude from all this is: a) Historian aspires, at most, to a representation of the past. b) Hence, the historian, with his moral and ideological beliefs, is present on his work, as he interprets and establishes connections from the present. c) This doesnt mean that the outcome is a mere creation: his construction is supposed to be bonded to reality, to the ideal of how it was. If he rejects that, reducing it to a mere self-expression of personal moral and ideological points of view, is doing anything but history. 4.2) Why? This issue will be briefly sketched out, with the main aim of presenting the point of view stood along the essay. Why history? Why is historical inquiry of interest? We have found an almost infinite range of points of view along the bibliography selected, from its justification due to the explanation of development of human values through history, to the argument that is the only way of understand our contemporary context.[19] As we will see on following lines the Why? stood by the historian determines the How? is the research carried on. But, however, there is an essential characteristic that lies under any of the different points of view: interest in history stems from the interest of understanding the human being in society. And from there, different ways of facing this issue enrich the whole. Hence: a) There is not a specific answer to the question Why history?, but all can be summarized in the study of the past of the human being in society. b) The different ways and perspectives through it is studied enriches the whole. 4.3) How? Once the questions of the What? and Why? history have been overviewed, we are reaching the central point of this essay: to see which is the role played by the ideological and moral own views of the historian in his work through answering to the question of How is it done?. Having a look to some of the essential aspects that intervene in the process of writing history will enable us to see how historians personal concerns are reflected on his work and how does this happen. First, a brief insight to the relationship between the historian and the facts and sources[20]. Carr defines it through a comparison with fishery: [Facts] are like fish swimming about in a vast and sometimes inaccessible ocean; and what the historian catches will depend [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] on what part of the ocean he chooses to fish in and what tackle he chooses to use- these two factors been determined by the kind of fish he wants to catch.[21] What he is trying to explain is how the historian is not a mere passive processer of data, but an active agent from the very starting point of selecting the information in which is going to root his research. But the question is: in base to what does he make the selection? In base to his own concerns? Or in base of the preferences of history? What is to say: the facts he looks for are determined by his own interests or by what history demands? As we have argued previously, history is about a representation of the past, where it is the main character, the object of study. So, it seems that would make sense to assert that the questions that the historian asks to the raw materials may be pounded faithfully to the preferences of history. Of course, at a first stance, when he hardly knows anything about the topic is going to study, his research will be driven by questions raised in the present, related to his concerns. But this will change progressively as he makes progress. Through inquiring the raw sources, to make them talk[22], the historian comes up with more questions, but this time not formulated in base to the present but to the foreign country[23] which is been re-visited. And by keeping this process, he manages to go deeper in the past, to understand better the people who lived there, the process that affected their lives. So, in theory, it appears to be possible the goal set by Ranke of getting to know the past in its own terms[24]. But when we examine any work of history, even the considered to be the best ones, we discover that, indeed, this doesnt happen. Every history book or paper can be classified in an ideological or moral spectrum due to its conclusions. In order to understand properly why does this happen, in the next lines we are going to proceed to an insight to what has been called the nature of the historian. Through this, we will go back to some of the issues which have just been covered. So, in the following lines we are going to deal with the issue of the nature of the historian in what pretends to be an invitation for the reader to think about who is the historian and how does his moral and ideological point of view affects his historical production. We will focus on three aspects, which are those who have been seen to be the most problematic: context, ideology as framework and categories as a vehicle for indirect judgement. As is aforementioned, the historian is not a machine, but a human who has his own beliefs and experiences emotions, who is part of his society, so shares the cultural background of his epoch and is affected by academic theories or trends. As Jordanova argues all historians have ideas already in their minds when they study primary materials- models of human behaviour, established chronologies, assumptions about responsibility, notions of identity and so on[25]. On the other hand, the historian is a professional devoted to the study from the past, through the construction of explanatory models of it in the most accurate way possible. Hence, we can detect the dual reality of the historian, which causes tensions. Lets have a look to how all this corpus of premises affects the historians craft. First of all, we have to bear in mind that the historian is part of a specific time and society that constrains him when creates his explanatory models about the past. For example, a historian in the sixties would be attracted by schools such as the cliometricians in the US or Annales in France, based on theories that championed more integration of the discipline with other social sciences such as sociology or economy, as some of them they understood that it was the way of reaching certain and objective conclusions[26]. This was translated into the predominance of a history based on the processing of data, quantifiable perspectives of the past, on analysis rather than narrative, predominance of social perspective rather than the study of individuals and so on.[27] Part of this schools where Emmanuel Roy de Laudurie and Lawrence Stone, who argued respectively that history that is not quantifiable cannot claim to be scientific[28] and that quantification was the way of pushing back widely spread historical myths[29]. But this conception wrecked partly because of its own exhaustion, partly because new trends surpassed it, such as post-modernist trends (that emphasized the study of the unconscious instead of data at a social level), radical historians (that argued for a more narrative history instead of analysis and promoted new objects of study such as what they understood of the hidden and oppressed of history)[30], and so on. And with this change of paradigm, a lot of supporters of the quantitative view changed their mind, as is the case of both Le Roy and Stone. The former wrote in the sixties a book about the collective imagery in a French medieval village; the latter is well known for having written a high-impact paper claiming for the revival of narrative[31]. As we can see, if changes the context where the ideological premises of the historian have been built, also changes the way of understanding it. In the end, changes the anthropological conception of who and how the human being is. Is the case of Le Roy: his idea of human as a being constrained by the means of production rooted in a materialist view of the world gave way to a new vision where the un-material (imaginaries and so on) was judged as more relevant in order to explain his anthropological basis. Hence, we can see that the context may influence heavily the ideological premises of the historian; and with a shift on it, changes, consequently, his way of ponderingthe past. Especially important is the case of that historiography explicitly based on an ideology. Maybe the most remarkable case is the Marxist historiography, which has kept a strong presence in the field during almost the whole XX century. Great historians such as E.P Thompson, Christopher Hill or Eric Hobsbawm didnt hesitate in defending Marxism as an especially useful point of departure for historical research[32]. As confessed Marxists they were, his studies focused on topics related to the world of labour from a materialistic perspective and dealt with categories and concepts such as bourgeois, class and class struggle, means of production à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ full of Marxists implications. The use of categories in history is another example of how present is historians moral and ideological point of view in his work. Categories are not neutral, but full of implications. As we have seen, Marxist historians are predisposed to explain history through Marxist categories. But we can think on an infinite range of examples: categories such as democratic or fascist, and so on, are often used as a way of setting moral judgements. Hence, through the mere choice of categories, the historian is, though implicitly, judging. Facing this picture, it could seem that post-modernist assumptions about the impossibility of getting over ones point of view and reach historical truths are certain. To counterargue this conclusion, has been found (as Evans also does) [33] to be very useful the concept of objectivity encouraged by Thomas Haskell, which regards it more as a quality of the historian itself than of the text: ascetic self-discipline that enables a person to do such things as abandon wishful thinking, assimilate bad news, discard pleasing interpretations that cannot past elementary tests of evidence and logic, and, most important at all, suspend [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] ones own perceptions long enough to enter sympathetically into the alien and possibly repugnant perspectives of rival thinkers.[34] In the end, we could say that writing good history, capable of reaching historical truth, is about been able of transcending ones point of view and subordinate it to the historical reality faced along the study of the sources. It could be said that is a matter of primacy, of been able to give primacy to the history rather than to ones position. Lets examine this with some of the examples aforementioned. We have mentioned the case of Hobsbawm. As it has been said, he developed a historical analysis from a Marxist point of view. But when we say that we are not assuming that he was fitting his conclusions into that premises, enforcing reality to fit it into his ideological point of view. Indeed, he was able to reach conclusions which challenged the traditional Marxist point of view, as happens when asserts that macro-social analysis difficulties to understand the nature of Revolutions by exaggerating structure and devaluating situation, as them can only been explained historically, focusing on the specific, and not theoretically, through generalisations[35]. Or when writes about nationalism in a much more cultural way than just based on Marxists social theory and framework[36]. Marxist theory guided his historical inquiry, but he was not closed to re-interpreting it if the sources demanded it, and was opened as well to consider historical problems without absolutizing any kind of historical causes or perspectives. His capacity of considering all the points of view, of not closing his historical inquiry to his ideological preferences, and to giving primacy to the historical sources rather than to his personal ideological premises, makes his work valid until today[37]. A counter example would be the case of Carr, whose History of Soviet Russia has been often criticised because of overlooking Stalinist repression[38]. And is a precise critique: in what he said was an accurate accountant of the development of the Soviet state, he disregarded that crucial point due to a strong ideological bias. Or the case of some ideologically-motivated gender history, that absolutizes ahistorical concepts, such as patriarchy, fitting history into its predetermined framework[39]. Another example are Foucaultspseudo-historical writings, which are more a kind of philosophical works based on historical examples, where theory clearly outweighs historical rigor.[40] In this cases, the primacy of history is not preserved; far from that, it is toughly violated, as is placed at the service of the moral and ideological framework of the writer. We have mentioned as well the issue of categories as a way of implicit moral and ideological judgement. The historian will never get rid of it, but can perfectionate his ability to represent history accurately through them. Lets bring again the example of the category fascist. If the historian is able to understand it properly, and is conscious of all its implications, he will be able to make an appropriate use of it, according to historical standards. Then, if he remains faithful to the sources, would be in the position of identifying fascist movements, or fascist behaviours as were historically understood in the time studied. It will, for example, help him to differentiate it from other kind of authoritarian ideologies, point which is often confused. And this is the way that objectivity should be understood: as a capacity of detachment that allows the historian to overcome a fully present-minded and ideological interpretation. And departs from the assertion that primacy must be given to the demands of history, to the guidance of the sources. A way of assessing if this has been achieved is through the test of time: the validity of its conclusions through a wide span of time. Quoting again Tosh, is what made him to assert that Hobsbawms Age of Revolution still unsurpassed[41], even when Marxism is not anymore seen as a reliable framework of interpretation. All of this can be achievable only if this principle of objectivity is assumed. But it is just a necessary condition, but not sufficient. To accomplish it depends as well on the skill of the historian. But without it, doesnt matter how much skilful the historian is, that his work will not stand the test of time. Along this essay, we have revised some polemic aspects about the historians relationship with his object of study. First of all, after fixing definitions of moral and ideology, we have revised some of the attitudes across the historiography about our topic. Then, through answering to the questions What?, Why? and How? we have explored the relationship between the historian and history, between his perso

The Evolution of the Telephone and Operator :: Communication Technology Papers

The Evolution of the Telephone and Operator A few nights ago I was sitting at the dining room table reviewing my research, when my roommate, Lucy, walked in and inquired as to my progress. We started talking a bit about telephones and telephone operators and she related a story about the telephone in her hometown. Lucy is from a small town in Ireland. She clearly remembers when, at the age of four (about twenty eight years ago), her family installed their first telephone. To make a call her family would turn the crank on their telephone which would then alert Mrs. Murphy at the post office who would connect the call. Everyone in the village, Lucy explained, resisted making phone calls on Christmas Day in order to give Mr. Murphy break for the holiday. It was not until Lucy was in her teens that her town phone switched to automatic. She remembers calling home from school one day and receiving a pre-recorded message informing her that her number had been changed. Needless to say, she was greatly surprised. Lucy is not much older than I am; we grew up in virtually the same period of time, but in obviously different worlds. Her story of the telephone recalls memories of the endless episodes of Little House on the Prairie I used to watch where Mrs. Nelson would nosily listen into a phone call after making a connection. Lucy's story is an abbreviated version of that of America's. What occurred in her town over a period of ten or twelve years, transpired over the late 19th and a good part of the 20th centuries in the United States. While the technology of the telephone has transformed considerably since it's creation in the late 1870's, the basic job and job-related stresses of the telephone operator have changed significantly, but to a lesser degree. Most of my data falls within two time periods: then (before the 1920's) and now (the 1990's). While we will be missing a large chunk of detailed information, what I have found allows us enough to piece together the missing periods. In the first two years after the invention of the telephone, all subscribers in a particular area were linked to each other via a telephone line. When one wished to call another party, s/he would call directly across the line indicating the desired recipient by the number of rings sounded.

Marcus Brutus as the Protagonist of William Shakespeares Julius Caesar

Marcus Brutus as the Protagonist of William Shakespeare's Julius Caesar      Ã‚   All men have the power to reason.   Some men can reason better than others, nonetheless, all men can reason.   In order to reason, one must clear his mind, be completely impartial, and understand the situation to the best of his ability.   The play Julius Caesar, by William Shakespeare, is the story of a man trying his best to make reasonable, rational decisions.   Marcus Brutus is this struggling character who evades constant pressure from all sides to gloriously pull through, yet dies at play's end.   Undoubtedly, Brutus is the main character, and driving force of the play, despite the misleading title of Julius Caesar.  Ã‚  Ã‚   Three separate, critical aspects help to show the reader how unimportant Julius Caesar is to the play.   Caesar appears, in dreams, and thoughts of multiple people, giving warnings and special messages.   Nobody seems to pay attention to him. Anotherexample is illustrated by the way that Brutus seems to dominate his own actions, whatever he is thinking.   Also, Antony declares war on Brutus, but not out of love for Caesar, but anger toward the conspirators.   As these aspects are explained in further detail one will be sure of the fact that Brutus, without question, clearly dominates the play as a whole.    Caesar warns numerous people of ensuing tragedies multiple times, and not once is he listened to.   Calpurnia cries out terrified three times during the night, "Help ho - they murder Caesar!"   The reader soon learns of a dream in which Caesar's wife visualizes her husband's death.   She begs and pleads Caesar to stay home that day, ... ...ad.   In every aspect of the play earlier mentioned, Brutus is the driving force of nearly everything that occurs.   Caesar is but an after-thought of the reader, and is realized as the inciting action, and nothing more.   Brutus is, by all means, the dominating force in the play.    "He who will not reason is a bigot; he who cannot is a fool; and he who dares not, is a slave." - Sir William Drumman      Works Cited and Consulted: Hunter, G.K. "Shakespeare and the Traditions of Tragedy." Wells, Stanley, ed. The Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare Studies. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1994. Shakespeare, William. "The Tragedy of Julius Caesar." Houghton Mifflin Company. The Riverside Shakespeare. Ed. G. Blakemore Evans. Boston, 1974. Palmer, D. J. "Tragic Error in Julius Caesar." Shakespeare Quarterly. 21-22 (1970): 399.

Aluminum :: Research Essays

Aluminum Aluminum is the second most abundant element in the Earth’s crust. It has a concentration of about 8.2 percent (Craig et al 264). Aluminum â€Å"is malleable, ductile, and easily machined and cast; and has excellent corrosion resistance and durability† (http://minerals.usgs.gov/). It is evident in everyday life. Aluminum is a very useful abundant metal. A large fraction of the mineral products we seek are metals, such as aluminum (Halleck, 1/20). The major uses of aluminum are transportation, packaging and containers, and building products. Some other uses are electrical and consumer durable goods (Craig et al 266). It is important in the use of transportation because it is lightweight, which enables more efficient use of fuels, and it is resistant to corrosion (Craig et al 266). â€Å"Commercially pure aluminum is comparatively soft and ductile†¦it has tensile strength of 13,000 pounds per square inch† when it is in its annealed condition (Hobbs 76). When the metal is strain hardened, its tensile strength is 24,000 pounds per square inch (Hobbs 76). The tensile strength can increase even more when other elements are added to the metal to form alloys. Some of these elements used for alloying are copper, iron, silicon, magnesium, nickel, and zinc (Hobbs 79). Aluminum is also common in minerals such as feldspar, mica, which are silicates, and clay. Most of aluminum production has been from bauxite. â€Å"Bauxite can form from the weathering of any rock that is aluminum bearing† (Craig et al 267). Most bauxite mining is done in tropical regions where there is not an abundant amount of cheap electricity or large markets for the aluminum production (Craig et al 268). The bauxite is crushed, washed, dried, and then shipped to processing sites. Aluminum is produced by the â€Å"electrolytic reduction of alumina in a molten bath of natural or synthetic cryolite† (Craig et al 268). This process is very energy intensive so it is done in areas where electricity is cheap. â€Å"Aluminum recovery from scrap (recycling) has become an important component of the aluminum industry† (http://minerals.usgs.gov/). About thirty percent of aluminum is recycled each year. Sixty percent of that is from new scrap and forty percent is from old scrap (http://minerals.usgs.gov/). Some examples of recyclable aluminum are automobiles, windows and doors, appliances, and cans. Aluminum is also used in many cooking utensils, electrical conductors, buildings, and in transportation industries.

The Epic of Beowulf: Order Overpowers Chaos

In the epic poem Beowulf, the warrior hero Beowulf chooses to confront the tyrannical monster Grendel in his own domain, the hijacked mead hall of Heorot. A battle of brute strength ensues, in which Grendel, unable to escape his opponent's awesome armgrip, rips away from his own arm and flees, dying soon after from bloodloss. Beowulf's victory, though relatively early in the story, is a pivotal moment that signifies the defeat of discord and the return of civilization.Due to the stark ifferences in their appearances, lineages, and tactics of warfare, Grendel and Beowulf in battle symbolize the recurring conflict between chaos and order. When it comes to physical form, Grendel's wild nature is demonstrated by his scaly, barbed, hulking fgure and his razor-sharp talons, while Beowulf's powerful human form and clothing present him as much more civil. As the Danish soldiers marvel at the monster's severed arm, they notice that â€Å"Every nail, claw-scale and spur, every spike and welt on the hand of that heathen brute was like barbed steel.Everybody said here was no honed iron hard enough to pierce him through, no time-proofed blade that could cut his brutal blood-caked claw' (983-989). Their description not only refers to their unsuccessful attempts to penetrate Grendel's flesh by blade, but it illustrates a conception of his features as a whole. The creature's size and bodily protrusions characterize the hostile nature of Grendel, making him uncivilized to the point of being inhuman. Beowulfs features, however, have the opposite effect.Speaking of the hero, the Danish coast guard exclaims, â€Å"Nor have I seen a mightier an-at-arms on this earth than the one standing here: unless I am mistaken, he is truly noble. This is no mere hanger-on in hero's armor† (247-251). Beowulfs appearance and frame, although imposing, do not spark fear such as that of Grendel, but rather awe and respect. Likewise, his characteristics portray him as honorable, including his sleeping garments when he decides to face Grendel unaided by sword or breastmail (669-673); both his clothing and appearance of chivalry depict him as a fair and ethical fghter.Therefore, while Grendel's monstrous image paints him as a arbinger of anarchy, Beowulf's regal aspect and normal human look illustrate his role as civilization. In the case of their family backgrounds, Beowulf is a prince descended from many honourable and noble kings who served their people, and is therefore orderly; Grendel, in contrast, is the offspring of generations' worth of violent sinners, mainly the biblical Cain, and is feral by default. When asked of his origins, â€Å"The man whose name was known for courage, the Geat leader, resolute in his helmet, answered in return: We are retainers from Hygelac's band.Beowulf is my name† (340-343). The Geat warrior inherits a lineage that manifests itself in his name and reputation. Essentially, Beowulf and his ancestors are known for being valiant an d honorable, which are reflected in his actions, such as his offer to face Grendel. In contrast to the poem's protagonist, Grendel is a member of â€Å"Cain's clan, whom the Creator had outlawed and condemned as outcasts†¦. and out of the curse of his exile there sprang ogres and elves and evil phantoms and the giants brother, is infamous for being violent and vengeful; such traits are conferred to Grendel.Like his ancestor, Grendel ambushes his enemies without warning while gnoring moral conduct, effectively depicting his wild disposition. In essence, Grendel's heritage embodies his part in the conflict as barbarism, whereas that of Beowulf paints him as civil society. Lastly, what ultimately determines the two characters' natures is their fighting strategies: Grendel lashes out and demolishes his enemies in the middle of the night, but Beowulf chooses to fght without weapons to ensure a fair battle.The monster's unjust battle tactics are outlined in â€Å"the vicious raids and ravages of Grendel, his long and unrelenting feud, nothing but war; how he ould never parley or make peace with any Dane nor stop his death-dealing nor pay the death-price† (152-156). By choosing to ambush his enemies in their moments of vulnerability, Grendel highlights his own lack of ethical standards, as well as his inner cowardice, both shameful traits for a warrior to possess.His tactics of constant war and ignorance with respect to war atonement also feature his savage essence, making him the embodiment of lawlessness. In reference to his opponent, Beowulf states that â€Å"He has no idea of the arts of war, of shield or sword-play, although he does possess a wild strength. No weapons, therefore, for either this night: unarmed he shall face me if face me he dares. And may the Divine Lord in His wisdom grant the glory of victory to whichever side He sees fit† (681-687).His decision to battle Grendel without arms exemplifies both his sense of honor in warfare a s well as his courage; on a different note, it is also indicative of his intelligence, as none of the other warriors were aware that Grendel's hide was impervious to weapons. Additionally, Beowulf accepts that the fate of the brawl will ultimately be chosen by God, demonstrating his moral values. As a result, Grendel represents disorder hrough his cowardly war strategies and his unethical values; Beowulf, on the other hand, symbolizes organized society due to his courtesy in war as well as his valor.By virtue of their symbolic roles as order and chaos, Beowulf and Grendel oppose each other Just as they did in the mead hall. The very existence of both fgures was inherently contradictory, illuminated by the fact that â€Å"As long as either lived, he was hateful to the other† (814-815). Lawfulness cannot be present while anarchy and tumult remain. Therefore, Beowulf's overthrow of Grendel personifies the transition from discord and turmoil to order and civilization.

Impact Of The Latest Advances In Technology On Recruitment And Selection

ABSTRACT In the face of a new era of downsizing, garnering of qualified workforce remains a key organizational goal. A commonly held view among the human resource managers is that the human resources are the most important assets of an organization and that they offer the only non-imitative competitive edge. As the point of entry, the process of recruitment and selection of employees plays a crucial role in enhancing the success and survival of the organization in the extremely competitive and turbulent business environment. This paper explores on how the latest advances in technology have impacted on the process of recruitment and selection of employees. Different aspects of the use of new technology will be examined including internet based recruitment, telephone and video conferencing, computer based testing and IVR or Automated telephone interviewing. This will include an overview of the potential advantages as well as challenges arising with the use of each wave of technology. INTRODUCTION In the face of a new era of downsizing, garnering of qualified workforce remains a key organizational goal (Bauer 2004). As the point of entry, the process of recruitment and selection of employees plays a crucial role in enhancing the success and survival of the organization in the extremely competitive and turbulent business environment. Traditionally, the recruitment and selection process relied on fairly low-tech methods such as employee referrals and newspaper ads, in locating and attracting qualified candidates (Lievens, et.al 2002). Successful job seeking included frequenting the local job center (Lievens, et.al 2002). This has however changed over the past few decades as a result of advances in technology. The recruitment process, just like all other business functions, has become increasingly tied to technology (Lievens, et.al 2002). The common practice of mailing applications and waiting to be called for an interview via a phone call has been trumped by technological advances which have eased communication. Technological advances such as internet-based recruitment and candidate assessment, computer-based testing, Interactive Voice Response (IVR), telephone and video-based interviews among other information technologies are now increasingly being used in recruiting and selecting qualified candidates (Chapman & Webster 2003). In this paper, we examine how the latest advances in technology have impacted on the process of recruitment and selection of employees. The following sections will explore on these technological advances, in particular, how they are impacting on recruitment and selection process. This will include an overview of the potential advantages as well as challenges arising with the use of each wave of technology. We begin by exploring on internet based recruitment, which involves recruitment via the web.a. INTERNET BASED RECRUITMENTThe most popular ways through which advances in technology have significantly impacted on recruitment and selection is through the internet. Organizations are increasingly making use of the internet technology, particularly the World Wide Web, as a platform for testing and recruiting potential candidates (Baron & Austin, 2000). Social networking websites, software and online job boards has helped in linking applicants to hiring professionals with focus on knowled ge, skills and abilities (Baron & Austin, 2000). Social networking sites such as LinkedIn, CareerBuilder, monster.com and universe.jobs hold millions of jobs and resumes in their databases (Neil 2003). These professional networking sites play a significant role in the process of recruitment and selection. LinkedIn, for example, is used as a business-oriented social networking site whereby applicants are linked with the employers. LinkedIn is widely used globally as a professional network service and has currently 90 million users (Neil 2003). It is currently valued at over $2.51 billion USD and operates in more than 200 countries (Neil 2003). Advances in technology have indeed shaped the process of recruitment and selection. Online ads are now the lead recruitment methods employed by employers. Recruitment and selection via the web has enabled the employers to build a ‘talent pool’ of qualified candidates and lessen their reliance on conventional print media (Thompson et al., 2008). This has led to significant cost savings as employers lessen their reliance on recruitment agencies (Thompson et al., 2008). In this regard, Harris & Dewar (2000) noted a significant reduction on the cost per-hire from $ 3,295 (for the conventional recruitment methods) to $377 (for internet based recruitment). There are many benefits arising with the use of internet based recruitment method as well challenges that it present to the organizations. It should be noted that internet based recruitment is not without its shortcomings, but the cons must be weighed against the pros in order to determine if this recruitment method is supported. BENEFITS OF INTERNET BASED RECRUITMENT The internet provides efficiency in the administration and scoring of test as the content can be easily modified and answers captured in electronic form (Van Hoye & Lievens 2007). It also enables routine checking of errors, automatic scoring of tests and provides instant feedback to the applicants (Van Hoye & Lievens 2007). This administrative ease enables recruiters to save on costs and time giving them a competitive hedge in the tight labour market. It also provides for increased flexibility for both the employer and applicants in the administration of tests and performance of work in varied geographical locations (Van Hoye & Lievens 2007). Moreover, the widespread of information in a globalized market widens access to a diverse geographical labour pool (Lievens & Harris 2003). Additionally, there is a greater transparency in the selection process as candidates are selected based on their skills, experience and competence (Lievens & Harris 200 3). CHALLENGES TO INTERNET BASED RECRUITMENT While it is apparent that online recruitment help cut on recruitment costs, increase efficiency and transparency in the selection process; there are some potentially major drawbacks. Due to the high number of applicants, screening and checking the authenticity and mapping of skills may be a time consuming exercise (Lievens & Harris 2003). The large number of indistinguishable resumes from the various applicants coupled with inadequate software and procedures may lead to poor results in the selection of the ideal candidate (Lievens & Harris 2003). This problem can largely be attributed to the existing methods for parsing resumes which is dependent on software that truncates and exclude the totality of content (Lievens & Harris 2003). Also, failure by the industry software to produce optimum candidate and position convergence may result in correspondingly low retention rates of the new employees hence costing client companies thousands of dollars (Lievens & Harris 2003). Despite having automated assistance, managing the workload remains a daunting task for HR managers. While software has reduced on the number of resumes from the applicants, that would otherwise be manually reviewed, it has not been successful in narrowing candidate resume pools to the ideal qualified applicants (Harris & Dewar 2000).It should be noted that most of the software employed in the process of recruitment and selection generally uses rudimentary lexical and semantic algorithms (Harris & Dewar 2000). These algorithms tend to generate a large candidate pool with most candidates insufficiently suitable for effective use (Harris & Dewar 2000). This is because the industry software lacks the ideal filtering capabilities necessary for the proper parsing of resume. Crucial data that could help in identifying the ideal candidate and position convergence is therefore lost. Without sufficient data, there is not enough variance that could be used in distinguishing among candidate and position suitability (Harris & Dewar 2000). This next section will explore on interactive voice response (IVR) which is also known as automated telephone interviewing. The method is also gaining popularity and is increasingly being used by firms in recruiting and selecting new hires. b. AUTOMATED TELEPHONE INTERVIEWING/INTERACTIVE VOICE RESPONSE (IVR) The use of interactive voice response (IVR) which also referred to as automated telephone interviewing is one of the newest ways to recruiting and selecting new hires (Thompson et.al 2008). IVR technology allows for human interaction with the computer via a telephone keypad or through the use of voice recognition (Thompson et.al 2008). This wave of technology is increasingly gaining popularity in the recruitment and selection of employees due to its many advantages. ADVANTAGES OF THE IVR IVR is an easily accessible technology. Take for example the United States where 95% of the households own phones (Thompson et.al 2008). With IVR, applicants can initiate the interview at any time. The applicants or potential employees can initiate an interview by simply making a phone call to a toll-free phone number and be automatically interviewed without any intervention from the operator (Thompson et.al 2008). IVR or rather automated telephone interviewing can help in eliminating interview biases (Thompson al 2008). It is highly cost effective in screening the candidate pool. DISADVANTAGES OF USING IVR While IVR is increasingly being used by many businesses to cut on the costs and give a better experience, it is not without its shortcomings. One of the greatest challenges to using IVR systems in recruitment and selection of employees is that the users find it hard to follow telephone menus and lengthy instructions (Thompson et.al 2008). Also, IVR screening is considered lower in terms of treatment and openness as well as in reconsideration opportunities than the conventional face to face interviewing (Thompson al 2008)..c. TELECONFERENCING AND VIDEO CONFERENCINGThere is also the use of telephone and video conferencing. Teleconferencing involves setting up of a conference telephone call between the selection committee and potential candidates (Gilliland 1993). Job interviews by teleconferencing are common where the applicant and the selection committee are located in geographically sparse regions. Video conferencing, on the other hand, involves the combination of both the audio and video transmissions, hence allowing for communication to take place by a way of an audio visual link (AVL) (Gilliland 1993). With video confer encing, both the applicant and selection committee members are able to share their views and at the same time see each other on the screen. BENEFITS OF VIDEO CONFERENCING Despite reducing the in-person meetings, video teleconferencing as well offer the advantages of face to face communication (Gilliland 1993). There is also significant cost reduction for both the applicant and the employer as there is no need of travelling and associated costs of lodging and meals (Gilliland 1993). There is also the added environmental benefit as a reduction in traveling implies a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions (Gilliland 1993). Further, upon placement this technology allows for the continued collaboration with the team members from remote locations (Gilliland 1993). CHALLENGES OF VIDEO CONFERENCING Similar to other technological innovations, video conferencing is not without its shortcomings. There might be a difference in time zones when conferencing in remote geographical locations (Gilliland 1993). Also, some of the human ways to communicating may not translate well with video conferencing (Gilliland 1993). For example, eye contact may not be easily delivered through a webcam, unlike in the conventional face-to-face interviewing where one can easily make eye contact and judge whether the interviewee is paying due attention. Last but not least, we explore on how computer based testing has impacted on recruitment and selection process.d. COMPUTER BASED TESTINGThe use of computer based interviews has increased in the recent years with a wide range of organizations utilizing computer-based online tests for selection purposes (Aptitude/psychometric tests) (Chapman & Webster, 2003). There are several reasons for increased reliance on psychometric tests in the recruitment and selection of employees. Key among these is the increased regulation and legislation, and loss of confidence in academic qualifications (Chapman & Webster, 2003). INCREASED REGULATION AND LEGISLATION Reliance on test use in the selection process has been used as a defensive strategy to regulation and legislation (Chapman & Webster, 2003). Tests are seen as objective indicators of how the skills of potential candidates align with the job description (Chapman & Webster, 2003). These competency tests promote fairness and equal access to opportunities available. LOSS OF CONFIDENCE IN ACADEMIC QUALIFICATIONS There is a growing body of evidence for a loss of confidence with the formal academic qualifications. This is largely attributed to bad governance and corrupt institutions that may award degrees or certificates to incompetent individuals. As such, competency based tests are increasingly being used in screening the candidate pool and in identifying candidates with skills that align with the â€Å"competency profile† for the job in question (Chapman & Webster, 2003). Computer based testing facilitates the selection process by quickly pinpointing the candidates ability more accurately (Chapman & Webster, 2003). Take for example the BULATS online test, a robust business English language test, which is widely used in helping organizations make timely decisions in the recruitment process (Chapman & Webster, 2003). This online test provides a fast and more accurate method of pinpointing the candidates’ ability and suitability to work by using adaptive testing techniques (Chapman & Webster, 2003). CONCLUSION Clearly, we have identified a number of benefits to using technology for purposes of recruiting and selecting job applicants. A quick recap of some of the benefits include increased efficiency in the administration and scoring of tests, increased flexibility, greater transparency, reduction in biases, widened access to a diverse geographical pool of potential candidates, and cost reduction among others. There are however challenges arising with the use of technological advances in recruitment and selection process. For example, the exercise may be time consuming as a large number of applicants need to be screened. Other shortcomings include poor results due to inadequate software and procedures, and difficulties in filtering of potential candidates, among others. Nonetheless, the latest advances in technology have significantly impacted on recruitment and selection process. As pointed out by Kay (2000), the power of the Web and e-technology has changed the way recruitment and selections of employees occur. Technological advancements and the ubiquity of the internet (especially with social networking) have become powerful additions to the process of recruitment and selection. However, these should not be considered as the only solutions to finding the ideal candidate. While changes are still underway, it is clear that advances in technology have dramatically impacted on the recruitment and selection process. REFERENCES Bauer, et.al, 2004. â€Å"Applicant reactions to different selection technology: face-to-face, interactive voice response and computer-assisted telephone screening interviews†, International Journal of selection and assessment, Portland State University: Blackwell publishing ltd. Baron, H., & J. Austin, 2000. Measuring ability via the Internet: Opportunities and issues. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, New Orleans, LA. Chapman, D.S., & J. Webster, 2003. â€Å"The use of technologies in recruiting, screening and selection processes for job candidates†, International journal of selection and assessment, Vol.11 (2), pp. 113-120 Gilliland, S.W, 1993. â€Å"The perceived fairness of selection systems: an organizational justice perspective†, Academy of management review, 18, pp.694-734 Harris, M., and K. Dewar, 2000. Understanding and using web-based recruiting and screening tools: key criteria, current trends and future directions. Workshop presented at annual meeting of the society for industrial and organizational psychology, San Diego, CA. Kay, A. S., 2000. â€Å"Recruiters embrace the Internet.† Informationweek: pp.72-80. Lievens, F., K. Van Dam and N. Anderson, 2002. â€Å"Recent Trends and Challenges in Personnel Selection†. Personnel Review, 31 (5-6), 580-601 Lievens, F., & M.M. Harris, 2003. â€Å"Research on Internet Recruiting and Testing: Current Status and Future Directions†. In: C.L. Cooper & I.T. Robertson (Eds.) International Review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Chicester: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. vol. 16., pp. 131-165. Neil, A., 2003. â€Å"Applicant and recruiter reactions to new technology in selection: a critical review and agenda for future research†, International journal of selection and assessment, Vol. 11 (2) Thompson, L. F., P.W. Braddy, and K.L. Wuensch, 2008. E-Recruitment and the Benefits of Organizational Web Appeal. Computers in Human Behavior, 24 (5), 2384-2398. Tourangeau, R., D.M. Steiger & D.Wilson, 2002. â€Å"Self-administered questions by telephone: evaluating interactive voice response†, public opinion quarerly, 6, pp.265-278 Van Hoye, G. and F. Lievens, 2007. â€Å"Investigating Web-Based Recruitment Sources: Employee Testimonials versus Word-of-Mouse†. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 15 (4), 372-382.